The majority of people living in Europe are Christians (see Protestant and Catholic Life-Cycle Rituals, page xlvi), although most countries have sizable Jewish and Muslim communities. Roman Catholics, who comprise the largest single Christian group, live mainly in Spain, Portugal, Italy, Ireland, Belgium, southern Germany, Hungary, and Poland. The greatest concentration of Protestant Christians is found in northern and central Europe—England, Scotland, northern Germany, the Netherlands, and the Scandinavian countries. The Orthodox church, the third major Christian group in Europe, has a strong following in Eastern Europe, primarily in Russia, Georgia, Greece, Bulgaria, Romania and the republics of the former Yugoslavia, except for Slovenia, which is mostly Roman Catholic. Throughout the Christian world, many countries, cities, and towns, and every parish, diocese, and ecclesiastical province has its particular patron saints; many of which are unknown outside the country or local area. The custom of giving children the names of Christian saints dates from the first millennium. By the thirteenth century, this custom had spread across the continent of Europe.
Today, when Christian parents are more likely to choose their children's names without regard to past traditions, the older European Christian churches strongly recommend that if the chosen first name is not of Christian origin or significance, a saint's name be bestowed at baptism as a middle name. In Roman Catholic countries, the custom has been to celebrate the feast day of the saint whose name the person received at baptism instead of or in addition to the person's birthday. This "baptismal saint" is considered a special personal patron all through life. Children are made familiar with the history and legend of "their own" saint. They are inspired by his or her life and feel protected and bonded with their patron saint. All Christian churches have rituals and customs for every stage of life, from the crib to the grave. Although the basic rituals of each Christian group remain much the same across Europe, how the rituals are celebrated varies from country to country, from region to region within a country, and between the urban and rural populations of a country or region.
Monday 20 December 2010
Confucianism And Confucian Rites Of Passage
Confucianism can be confusing to Western readers because it is more of a philosophy and way of life than a religion. Confucian teachings have influenced the beliefs and values of traditional societies in China, Korea, Japan, Vietnam, and Taiwan for centuries. Confucius (551-472 B.C.) was a teacher who taught social and ethical reforms, not religion. Respectful relationships between all people—parents and children, one another, and elders—are fundamental to Confucians. In the old Imperial China, Confucian officials regulated the traditional rites of passage and all aspects of public behavior. Under Communism, the great majority of Chinese people still hold fast to values that were first introduced by Confucius and his followers, even though religion is officially discouraged. Throughout Asian countries, Confucian rituals are hard to identify because they are generally fused with other religions.
Today, the most important rite of passage for Confucians is death. Confucians have great respect for their ancestors; when someone dies, the funeral is a memorable occasion. Colorful decorations and elaborate rituals are carefully attended to with the help of a religious leader. Family mourners chant prayers and offer sacrifices of food, especially rice. They symbolically burn paper money, and in some cases paper cars, planes, and images of servants, all necessary items that they believe will help the spirit of the dead make a more enjoyable journev into the world of its ancestors.
Today, the most important rite of passage for Confucians is death. Confucians have great respect for their ancestors; when someone dies, the funeral is a memorable occasion. Colorful decorations and elaborate rituals are carefully attended to with the help of a religious leader. Family mourners chant prayers and offer sacrifices of food, especially rice. They symbolically burn paper money, and in some cases paper cars, planes, and images of servants, all necessary items that they believe will help the spirit of the dead make a more enjoyable journev into the world of its ancestors.
Shintoism And Shinto Lifecycle Rituals
Shintoism is a Japanese religion. Its origins are unclear, but some scholars believe it is the name given to combined religious practices, some dating back to prehistoric Japan. Others believe Shintoism is simply a way of life that grew out of a natural love for everything and everyone. Japan has thousands of Shinto shrines, sacred places where spirits (kami) dwell. (In the Shinto religion, the source of all creation and the unexplainable essences of the universe are called kami.) Different shrines are visited for specific divine powers (shintoku). Students visit certain shrines to seek help with their studies, and sick people come to other shrines for the healing powers. Some shrines give protection from accidents, while other shrines are popular with couples seeking to bless their marriages. Mostly life-cycle celebrations and community festivals take place at the shrines.
The Japanese often combine religions, and it is not unusual for the same person to have had a Shinto wedding and a Buddhist funeral. It is common, though not universal, for a baby to be brought to the Shinto shrine by its mother or grandmother so that prayers may be said for its good health. Hatsu miyamairi (first shrine visit) takes place on the 32nd day after birth for a boy and the 33rd day for a girl. At this ceremony, the baby is introduced to the spirits (kami) and becomes a member of the shrine. The shichi-go-san (seven-five-three) festival is held throughout Japan on the nearest Sunday to November 15. Parents with threeand seven-year-old boys and five-year-old girls dress them in traditional kimonos and bring them to the shrine for a ceremony. At the shrine, parents give thanks for their children's good health and growth so far and pray for their future. Seijin-no-hi is on the second Sunday in January. The once a year coming-of-age ceremony is held for all who turn 20 throughout the year. On this day, Japanese youth are granted full rights as citizens. Families spend huge amounts of money on traditional clothing and photos for a ceremony that lasts less than an hour.
Most women attend this ceremony in a colorful furisode, a long sleeved kimono worn by single women. The s/zmzen kekkon-sai is a marriage ceremony before the kami (spirit). The majority of wedding ceremonies in Japan include Shinto rituals while others are Western-style, Christian events, popular since World War II. Shinto weddings became popular in the early 1900s after the very first royal wedding was performed by Shinto priests. Some Shinto shrines have a special hall to accommodate wedding parties. If the ceremony is not held at the shrine, the priests often officiate at public wedding halls or hotel ballrooms. Buddhist monks are looked upon as ritual specialists, and they are often called upon to chant the sutras that will benefit the deceased and to conduct all funeral rites and memorial services; the funeral services for the two religions are very similar. To help the deceased on its journeys to the beyond, mourners make offerings of paper "spirit money," along with wine, incense, and food, such as fish, fowl, and vegetables.
Instead of burning incense as the Buddhists do, the Shinto mourners offer strips of white paper and twigs of the sacred sakaki tree. Selecting a proper location for the grave is very important, and a Feng shui sien sheng (a specialist in grave placement matters) is consulted for the best site. The heirs must maintain the grave, and they are expected to make occasional offerings. Within one hundred days of the burial, a memorial service is held in the home of the oldest male heir. The Shinto priest offers prayers and reads an account of the life of the deceased.
The Shinto ancestral tablet, containing a picture and the name of the deceased, is made of plain wood. It is dedicated by the priest and placed on the home altar along with Joss-sticks (special incense), which are lit and placed on the tablet. Newlyweds traditionally bow before the altar as a sign of respect. According to Shinto beliefs, overseeing the proper funeral for a family member and making regular offerings to the ancestors are critical if the living descendants expect to have a successful and a good life.
The Japanese often combine religions, and it is not unusual for the same person to have had a Shinto wedding and a Buddhist funeral. It is common, though not universal, for a baby to be brought to the Shinto shrine by its mother or grandmother so that prayers may be said for its good health. Hatsu miyamairi (first shrine visit) takes place on the 32nd day after birth for a boy and the 33rd day for a girl. At this ceremony, the baby is introduced to the spirits (kami) and becomes a member of the shrine. The shichi-go-san (seven-five-three) festival is held throughout Japan on the nearest Sunday to November 15. Parents with threeand seven-year-old boys and five-year-old girls dress them in traditional kimonos and bring them to the shrine for a ceremony. At the shrine, parents give thanks for their children's good health and growth so far and pray for their future. Seijin-no-hi is on the second Sunday in January. The once a year coming-of-age ceremony is held for all who turn 20 throughout the year. On this day, Japanese youth are granted full rights as citizens. Families spend huge amounts of money on traditional clothing and photos for a ceremony that lasts less than an hour.
Most women attend this ceremony in a colorful furisode, a long sleeved kimono worn by single women. The s/zmzen kekkon-sai is a marriage ceremony before the kami (spirit). The majority of wedding ceremonies in Japan include Shinto rituals while others are Western-style, Christian events, popular since World War II. Shinto weddings became popular in the early 1900s after the very first royal wedding was performed by Shinto priests. Some Shinto shrines have a special hall to accommodate wedding parties. If the ceremony is not held at the shrine, the priests often officiate at public wedding halls or hotel ballrooms. Buddhist monks are looked upon as ritual specialists, and they are often called upon to chant the sutras that will benefit the deceased and to conduct all funeral rites and memorial services; the funeral services for the two religions are very similar. To help the deceased on its journeys to the beyond, mourners make offerings of paper "spirit money," along with wine, incense, and food, such as fish, fowl, and vegetables.
Instead of burning incense as the Buddhists do, the Shinto mourners offer strips of white paper and twigs of the sacred sakaki tree. Selecting a proper location for the grave is very important, and a Feng shui sien sheng (a specialist in grave placement matters) is consulted for the best site. The heirs must maintain the grave, and they are expected to make occasional offerings. Within one hundred days of the burial, a memorial service is held in the home of the oldest male heir. The Shinto priest offers prayers and reads an account of the life of the deceased.
The Shinto ancestral tablet, containing a picture and the name of the deceased, is made of plain wood. It is dedicated by the priest and placed on the home altar along with Joss-sticks (special incense), which are lit and placed on the tablet. Newlyweds traditionally bow before the altar as a sign of respect. According to Shinto beliefs, overseeing the proper funeral for a family member and making regular offerings to the ancestors are critical if the living descendants expect to have a successful and a good life.
Buddhism And Buddhist Life-Cycle Rituals
Buddhism originated in India in the sixth century B.C. as an offshoot of Hinduism andsoon spread to other countries. Buddha, the Enlightened One, was a Hindu prince whose philosophy grew into a separate religion. Buddha considered himself not a holy man but rather a teacher who simply wanted to inform and enlighten people about life and afterlife. Buddhism was accepted by people from all walks of life and all over the world. Many different interpretations of Buddhism have developed over the years in different countries. Life-cycle events, such as births, coming of age, and marriages, are not considered to be spiritually significant by Buddhists, although monks may bless a new baby, a marriage, or a new house. In some countries, for example Thailand, temporary ordination and a short period in the monastery may serve as a boy's entry into adulthood. Buddhists do consider burial ceremonies important occasions. Funerals reconfirm the Buddhist teachings that nothing is permanent and that rebirth follows death.
The funeral takes place in a temple or funeral hall, where priests, accompanied by the sounds of bells, gongs, and hollow wooden blocks, recite prayers over the body placed on a bier or in a coffin. Mourners then burn incense before the corpse. Twenty-four hours or more later, the body is taken to be cremated or buried. Most Buddhists build a family altar in their home and place an ancestral tablet and other sacred articles on it. The tablet is a small lacquered, gilded board containing a picture and the name of the deceased. Incense is burned on the altar, and family members pray before it. Families traditionally mourn their dead for 49 days and then observe the first, third, seventh,and thirteenth anniversaries by asking a priest to give a prayer service for the dead.
The funeral takes place in a temple or funeral hall, where priests, accompanied by the sounds of bells, gongs, and hollow wooden blocks, recite prayers over the body placed on a bier or in a coffin. Mourners then burn incense before the corpse. Twenty-four hours or more later, the body is taken to be cremated or buried. Most Buddhists build a family altar in their home and place an ancestral tablet and other sacred articles on it. The tablet is a small lacquered, gilded board containing a picture and the name of the deceased. Incense is burned on the altar, and family members pray before it. Families traditionally mourn their dead for 49 days and then observe the first, third, seventh,and thirteenth anniversaries by asking a priest to give a prayer service for the dead.
Hinduism And Hindu Lifecycle Rituals
The origins of the Hindu religion are obscure, but elements of Hindu beliefs can be traced back at least several thousand years. It is a complicated religion with many different interpretations by the numerous sects. Each group has intricate and minutely detailed rituals, customs, and ceremonies that are deeply rooted in every stage of life. Traditional Hindus attempt to achieve four objectives through life. The first objective is dharma (duty); followed by artha (material prosperity), kama (enjoyment), and finally, moksha (salvation). To achieve these four objectives, Hindus divide life into four segments: bramacharya (celibacy—student life, learning); grihastha (family life—enjoying life years); vanaprastha (retirement—delegating responsibilities to younger generations); and finally, sanyas (renunciation— giving up all responsibilities to prepare for death and the journey to the spirit world).
The most basic Hindu ceremonies, those pertaining to the life cycle, take place in the home. The four major life-cycle events are prenatal and birth, childhood, marriage, and death. Most Hindus keep a home shrine for daily prayer, which can be a shelf, a corner of a room, or in some homes a small room or closet. For the life-cycle ceremonies, family and friends gather around a family member who performs the ritual. When necessary, a priest is called in to take over the more complicated services. The shrine contains pictures and/or statues of the gods and goddess, saints, and ancestors. Other ritual necessities are a container of water for sprinkling and purifying the area, a bell to summon the good spirits, an incense burner to wave in front of the gods, and a tray with flowers and food.
The food offerings include fruit, freshly cooked rice, butter or ghee, and sugar. After a prayer is said over the food, family members eat it. Food is an important element of Hinduism. The kitchen in a Hindu home is treated as part cooking room, part dining room, and part chapel. Since leather is considered unclean by Hindus, one may not cook or dine wearing shoes. Beef is banned, because cattle are revered as sacred. The Hindu food laws and restrictions do not simply prohibit certain foods in the same way Muslims and Jewish people are forbidden from eating pork. Hindu food restrictions and rituals are very complex; caste, ethics, aesthetics, and faith as well as nutrition, hygiene, and diet are all interwoven into the Hindu doctrines involving food. The specific rituals and customs extend to not only what food is eaten and why it is cooked a certain way but also how and where it is served and eaten. One unique feature interwoven in Indian society and Hinduism is the caste system that divides the Indian population into four main castes (varnas).
The castes were established by Aryan priests after India was invaded by the Aryans around 1500 B.C. The caste divisions were originally based on racial or ethnic differences, with the Aryans occupying the higher castes. The highest caste are the Brahmans (priests and scholars); next are the Kshatriyas (nobles and warriors); below them are the Vaishyas (merchants and skilled artisans); and finally, there are Shudras (common laborers). Beyond the actual castes are the Harijans (outcastes), who were given the dirty and degrading jobs. The outcastes were called "untouchables" because merely to touch an outcaste, or even to be touched by an outcaste's shadow, was considered a form of ritual pollution for members of the higher varnas. Although officially banned by the Indian constitution since 1949, some people are still considered Harijan. Within the four Indian castes are thousands of subcastes (jati), usually confined to local areas or regions. A jati is usually connected to a particular occupation, such as trash collectors, rag pickers, snake charmers, farmers, and street sweepers. Although the Indian caste system is stronger in rural areas it still is a vital part of the Hindu religion and Indian culture. Indians' caste and subcaste positions affect the jobs available to them as well as their diet and religious practices, including how life-cycle events are celebrated. Before birth three rites are performed during the mother's pregnancy to help the child arrive safely into the world. On the 10th or 12th day after birth, the naming ceremony is performed by a Hindu priest. The name is selected according to the baby's horoscope, and friends and relatives are invited to celebrate the event. Another ceremony, annaprasana, is held at six months when the infant is given its first solid food. The baby's first step and first birthday may also be observed with a religious ceremony and a party. Between the ages of one and five, girls experience a ceremonial ear-piercing; this event too is reason to rejoice and have a party. The mundan, first haircut, is a very auspicious event for babv boys between one and three years of age. The father is supposed to shave the head, but usually he just cuts a few hairs while reciting the appropriate Hindu verses; the task is finished by a barber. The first hair is offered as a sacrifice to the gods. The hair cutting event usually calls for a large celebration with plenty of food. The main adolescence ritual is upanayana, popularly known as the "thread ceremony." Only boys between the ages of 8 and 12 in the upper three castes of the Hindu social system go through this ceremony. There are complex variations to this ritual for different Hindu sects. One of the basic principles behind this ceremony is to elevate the boy into manhood. Before the ritual he eats his last meal with his mother, and after the completion of upanayana he is expected to eat with the adult male family members. The "thread," or upavita, refers to a three-strand rope normally worn over the left shoulder and hanging under the right arm. It is a visible symbol confirming the boy's passing over into manhood. Most Hindus consider it a social obligation to be married within the religion, and marriages are arranged between members of thesame caste (social group).
The first thing parents have to do, with the consent of their offspring, is to find a suitable mate. Then an auspicious date and time for the marriage ceremony are chosen based on astrological charts. Nowadays more and more parents, especially in urban areas, believe the dowry or good looks are more important than the agreement of stars. This has become possible because boys and girls are not married as children as they once were. Hindu wedding ceremonies vary greatly, depending on geographical location, sect, family customs, and personal taste. Even within the same community differences can be seen in the clothes, ornaments, rituals, food, and length of the wedding celebrations, which in some cases can last several days. Rice and ghee are important ritual foods. The marriage (vivaha) is considered to be a gift-giving ritual by the father. He gives his daughter (kanya) as a gift (dan) to the boy's family. The biggest donation a father can make in his lifetime is kanya dan (the gift of his daughter). A great many marriages take place in wedding halls, which are available on a rental basis. A priest officiates the wedding, which is held in front of a pit for the sacrificial marriage fire (vivahahoma). The fire is fueled by sprinkling it with ghee. Among most Hindus, it is the custom for the couple to circle the fire seven times, chanting vows and throwing in offerings such as rice. During the ceremony the bride and groom each wears a garland of flowers around the neck which they exchange with each other as a token of acceptance. The father of the bride offers her hand in marriage first of all to the gods, then to the groom. The groom then assures his father-in-law that he will take care of his bride.At some point during the ceremony, the bride may stand on a stone, representing firmness and stability, to signify loyalty and faithfulness in the marriage. The rituals and customs extend to the wedding feast, making it an important part of the total marriage ceremony.Hindus view death as part of the never-ending cycle of birth and rebirth. According to Hindu tradition, bodies are cremated after death. Very elaborate ceremonies may continue for several weeks after the cremation, which must take place as soon as possible after death. After someone dies, the body is immediately washed and dressed in fresh clothes. Men and widows generally are covered with white shrouds, although the customs and the color of the shroud cloth can vary greatly, even within the same Hindu group.
Among some Hindus, a woman is decorated as for her wedding, and her shroud is orange. Unlike other Hindu life-cycle celebrations, friends and family do not bring food to the families in mourning. Death memorial rituals can last for several days or up to a year after the death of a loved one, depending on the beliefs of the person performing them.
The most basic Hindu ceremonies, those pertaining to the life cycle, take place in the home. The four major life-cycle events are prenatal and birth, childhood, marriage, and death. Most Hindus keep a home shrine for daily prayer, which can be a shelf, a corner of a room, or in some homes a small room or closet. For the life-cycle ceremonies, family and friends gather around a family member who performs the ritual. When necessary, a priest is called in to take over the more complicated services. The shrine contains pictures and/or statues of the gods and goddess, saints, and ancestors. Other ritual necessities are a container of water for sprinkling and purifying the area, a bell to summon the good spirits, an incense burner to wave in front of the gods, and a tray with flowers and food.
The food offerings include fruit, freshly cooked rice, butter or ghee, and sugar. After a prayer is said over the food, family members eat it. Food is an important element of Hinduism. The kitchen in a Hindu home is treated as part cooking room, part dining room, and part chapel. Since leather is considered unclean by Hindus, one may not cook or dine wearing shoes. Beef is banned, because cattle are revered as sacred. The Hindu food laws and restrictions do not simply prohibit certain foods in the same way Muslims and Jewish people are forbidden from eating pork. Hindu food restrictions and rituals are very complex; caste, ethics, aesthetics, and faith as well as nutrition, hygiene, and diet are all interwoven into the Hindu doctrines involving food. The specific rituals and customs extend to not only what food is eaten and why it is cooked a certain way but also how and where it is served and eaten. One unique feature interwoven in Indian society and Hinduism is the caste system that divides the Indian population into four main castes (varnas).
The castes were established by Aryan priests after India was invaded by the Aryans around 1500 B.C. The caste divisions were originally based on racial or ethnic differences, with the Aryans occupying the higher castes. The highest caste are the Brahmans (priests and scholars); next are the Kshatriyas (nobles and warriors); below them are the Vaishyas (merchants and skilled artisans); and finally, there are Shudras (common laborers). Beyond the actual castes are the Harijans (outcastes), who were given the dirty and degrading jobs. The outcastes were called "untouchables" because merely to touch an outcaste, or even to be touched by an outcaste's shadow, was considered a form of ritual pollution for members of the higher varnas. Although officially banned by the Indian constitution since 1949, some people are still considered Harijan. Within the four Indian castes are thousands of subcastes (jati), usually confined to local areas or regions. A jati is usually connected to a particular occupation, such as trash collectors, rag pickers, snake charmers, farmers, and street sweepers. Although the Indian caste system is stronger in rural areas it still is a vital part of the Hindu religion and Indian culture. Indians' caste and subcaste positions affect the jobs available to them as well as their diet and religious practices, including how life-cycle events are celebrated. Before birth three rites are performed during the mother's pregnancy to help the child arrive safely into the world. On the 10th or 12th day after birth, the naming ceremony is performed by a Hindu priest. The name is selected according to the baby's horoscope, and friends and relatives are invited to celebrate the event. Another ceremony, annaprasana, is held at six months when the infant is given its first solid food. The baby's first step and first birthday may also be observed with a religious ceremony and a party. Between the ages of one and five, girls experience a ceremonial ear-piercing; this event too is reason to rejoice and have a party. The mundan, first haircut, is a very auspicious event for babv boys between one and three years of age. The father is supposed to shave the head, but usually he just cuts a few hairs while reciting the appropriate Hindu verses; the task is finished by a barber. The first hair is offered as a sacrifice to the gods. The hair cutting event usually calls for a large celebration with plenty of food. The main adolescence ritual is upanayana, popularly known as the "thread ceremony." Only boys between the ages of 8 and 12 in the upper three castes of the Hindu social system go through this ceremony. There are complex variations to this ritual for different Hindu sects. One of the basic principles behind this ceremony is to elevate the boy into manhood. Before the ritual he eats his last meal with his mother, and after the completion of upanayana he is expected to eat with the adult male family members. The "thread," or upavita, refers to a three-strand rope normally worn over the left shoulder and hanging under the right arm. It is a visible symbol confirming the boy's passing over into manhood. Most Hindus consider it a social obligation to be married within the religion, and marriages are arranged between members of thesame caste (social group).
The first thing parents have to do, with the consent of their offspring, is to find a suitable mate. Then an auspicious date and time for the marriage ceremony are chosen based on astrological charts. Nowadays more and more parents, especially in urban areas, believe the dowry or good looks are more important than the agreement of stars. This has become possible because boys and girls are not married as children as they once were. Hindu wedding ceremonies vary greatly, depending on geographical location, sect, family customs, and personal taste. Even within the same community differences can be seen in the clothes, ornaments, rituals, food, and length of the wedding celebrations, which in some cases can last several days. Rice and ghee are important ritual foods. The marriage (vivaha) is considered to be a gift-giving ritual by the father. He gives his daughter (kanya) as a gift (dan) to the boy's family. The biggest donation a father can make in his lifetime is kanya dan (the gift of his daughter). A great many marriages take place in wedding halls, which are available on a rental basis. A priest officiates the wedding, which is held in front of a pit for the sacrificial marriage fire (vivahahoma). The fire is fueled by sprinkling it with ghee. Among most Hindus, it is the custom for the couple to circle the fire seven times, chanting vows and throwing in offerings such as rice. During the ceremony the bride and groom each wears a garland of flowers around the neck which they exchange with each other as a token of acceptance. The father of the bride offers her hand in marriage first of all to the gods, then to the groom. The groom then assures his father-in-law that he will take care of his bride.At some point during the ceremony, the bride may stand on a stone, representing firmness and stability, to signify loyalty and faithfulness in the marriage. The rituals and customs extend to the wedding feast, making it an important part of the total marriage ceremony.Hindus view death as part of the never-ending cycle of birth and rebirth. According to Hindu tradition, bodies are cremated after death. Very elaborate ceremonies may continue for several weeks after the cremation, which must take place as soon as possible after death. After someone dies, the body is immediately washed and dressed in fresh clothes. Men and widows generally are covered with white shrouds, although the customs and the color of the shroud cloth can vary greatly, even within the same Hindu group.
Among some Hindus, a woman is decorated as for her wedding, and her shroud is orange. Unlike other Hindu life-cycle celebrations, friends and family do not bring food to the families in mourning. Death memorial rituals can last for several days or up to a year after the death of a loved one, depending on the beliefs of the person performing them.
Islam And Islamic Life-Cycle Rituals
Islam is the second largest universal religion, with followers in all parts of the world. Islam is a monotheistic religion with its roots in Judaism and Christianity. Muslims believe in the biblical prophets Adam, Noah, Abraham, Ishmael, Isaac, Jacob, Moses, and Jesus, but they believe that Muhammad is the last prophet sent by God and that his message is the final one. Although Muslims believe Jesus was a prophet, they don't believe he was the son of God or that he was crucified. Islam cannot be separated from daily life and government, and so provides a framework for both secular and spiritual life. Prayer, fasting, pilgrimage, and dietary requirements are some of the long-held customs of the Muslim faith. Muslims must pray five times a day, every day of their lives. At dawn each morning in Muslim communities, a muezzin (prayer announcer) enters the mosque (house of worship), climbs to the top of the minaret (tower), and usually with the help of loudspeakers and a public address system, calls the faithful to the first of the day's prayers.
They are called, if not actually to enter a mosque, at least to take the time to pray wherever they are. In most Islamic countries, it is a common sight to see Muslims praying by the side of the road or in the street. On Fridays, the Muslims gather before noon at the mosque, and the prayer (JunTah) is led by an imam (religious leader). In the mosque, the prayer area for the men is completely separate from the section designated for the women and children. The mosque also serves as a community center where children and adults are schooled in the Koran (the Islamic holy book). In Muslim countries, the birth of a child is a joyous occasion. The birth of a boy is cause for a greater celebration than for the birth of a girl. When a boy grows up and marries, his wife and children become part of and strengthen his parents' extended family. Girls, however, leave their families and become part of their husband's clan when they marry. To welcome a newborn baby into the world, an imam whispers the call to prayer into its ear. Another auspicious and joyous ceremony is when the baby is named. Guests are invited to a celebration feast. Roasted lamb is the traditional food served at this ceremony and most other Muslim celebrations.
The major event of a boy's life is his circumcision, which normally takes place sometime between the ages of 7 and 12. It is a religious requirement for male Muslims. This ritual requires no celebration except perhaps a family dinner. When a girl reaches puberty, she changes from the dress of a schoolgirl to the garments worn by women. From this time forward, she dons the veil (hijab, also called khimar) in public. The veiling signifies that she is now a woman and is ready for marriage. Each Muslim country has its own identifiable veiling and rules of dress for women. It is often possible to tell not only a woman's country but also what region she is from and her status in life by the veil she wears. Varying in style, some veils cover just the hair and neck and others leave only the eyes visible. Among the most devout Muslims, the veil completely covers not only a woman's head and face but it drapes down over her clothes to her ankles. Marriage rituals in most Muslim countries are basically similar, but some are very rigid, following Islamic law to the letter; others are a little more lenient. Most Muslim marriages are arranged by the parents, and because marriage is an agreement between families, a financial contract is drawn up to define the terms. The bride takes no part in the negotiations, nor does she see her husband until after they are married. The groom has to pay mahr, the bride's price, by giving the bride gold jewelry or other goods that are worth an agreed amount of money. In some countries, the bride's family, not the bride, receives the money from the groom. If a groom is wealthy, he gives both money to the family and jewelry to the bride. The religious part of a marriage is very private and is performed separately from the more public celebration. According to strict Islamic law, at no time are men and women allowed to be together in the same room for any part of the wedding celebration, or for any other occasion for that matter. The religious part of the marriage ceremony is quite simple and is conducted by someone learned in Shan ah (Islamic Law), usually the imam. In Islam, the imam is separated from the bride-to-be by a screen or closed door; he asks the bride if she will accept the prospective husband. If she agrees, the imam then goes to the groom and asks him, in the presence of four witnesses (they cannot be family members), if he will take the woman for his wife.
His acceptance in front of witnesses makes the marriage valid, and then the imam officially records the contract. According to Islamic law, polygamy (a husband with more than one wife) is allowed. A man can have no more than four wives at a time, and even then, only if he can afford to treat them all equally; otherwise he must take fewer wives. The Hajj, the pilgrimage to the Muslim holy city of Mecca, is the most important rite of passage in a Muslim man's life. Muslim men are obliged to make the pilgrimage at least once in a lifetime. The Hajj must be performed during a specific month. The Kaaba is the sanctuary in Mecca to which all Muslims turn in prayer. The Black Stone is a sacred object set in the eastern wall of the Kaaba. During the Hajj, the faithful try to kiss or touch the stone. The Koran associates Abraham and Ishmael with the building of the Kaaba. When a Muslim dies, the funeral is very simple, and the body must be buried within 24 hours. The placement of the grave is important because the body must face Mecca. The body is washed and wrapped in a white cotton shroud. Muslims are not buried in coffins; a plank is placed at the bottom of the grave, and the body is laid on top of it. The face is covered with a cloth before the body is lowered into the ground. Men carry the body on a stretcher, or, in the case of a young child, the father carries the body in his arms. Male relatives sprinkle the grave with earth before it is completely covered.
The final prayers are said for the deceased at the cemetery. Muslim graves have no elaborate headstones. Only a small stone or marker is placed at the head and foot of the grave. Muslim women do not accompany the body to the burial ground because it is not considered appropriate for them, as bearers of life, to visit a place of death. It is the custom for friends and relatives to bring food for the immediate family for three days after the burial, and in turn, the guests are offered coffee (but no food). Honey or dishes made with honey are often eaten after funerals. Muslims believe eating honey is soothing to the soul and eases the mental anguish associated with death. A widower has no required mourning period, but a widow must go into seclusion for several months after the death of her husband.
They are called, if not actually to enter a mosque, at least to take the time to pray wherever they are. In most Islamic countries, it is a common sight to see Muslims praying by the side of the road or in the street. On Fridays, the Muslims gather before noon at the mosque, and the prayer (JunTah) is led by an imam (religious leader). In the mosque, the prayer area for the men is completely separate from the section designated for the women and children. The mosque also serves as a community center where children and adults are schooled in the Koran (the Islamic holy book). In Muslim countries, the birth of a child is a joyous occasion. The birth of a boy is cause for a greater celebration than for the birth of a girl. When a boy grows up and marries, his wife and children become part of and strengthen his parents' extended family. Girls, however, leave their families and become part of their husband's clan when they marry. To welcome a newborn baby into the world, an imam whispers the call to prayer into its ear. Another auspicious and joyous ceremony is when the baby is named. Guests are invited to a celebration feast. Roasted lamb is the traditional food served at this ceremony and most other Muslim celebrations.
The major event of a boy's life is his circumcision, which normally takes place sometime between the ages of 7 and 12. It is a religious requirement for male Muslims. This ritual requires no celebration except perhaps a family dinner. When a girl reaches puberty, she changes from the dress of a schoolgirl to the garments worn by women. From this time forward, she dons the veil (hijab, also called khimar) in public. The veiling signifies that she is now a woman and is ready for marriage. Each Muslim country has its own identifiable veiling and rules of dress for women. It is often possible to tell not only a woman's country but also what region she is from and her status in life by the veil she wears. Varying in style, some veils cover just the hair and neck and others leave only the eyes visible. Among the most devout Muslims, the veil completely covers not only a woman's head and face but it drapes down over her clothes to her ankles. Marriage rituals in most Muslim countries are basically similar, but some are very rigid, following Islamic law to the letter; others are a little more lenient. Most Muslim marriages are arranged by the parents, and because marriage is an agreement between families, a financial contract is drawn up to define the terms. The bride takes no part in the negotiations, nor does she see her husband until after they are married. The groom has to pay mahr, the bride's price, by giving the bride gold jewelry or other goods that are worth an agreed amount of money. In some countries, the bride's family, not the bride, receives the money from the groom. If a groom is wealthy, he gives both money to the family and jewelry to the bride. The religious part of a marriage is very private and is performed separately from the more public celebration. According to strict Islamic law, at no time are men and women allowed to be together in the same room for any part of the wedding celebration, or for any other occasion for that matter. The religious part of the marriage ceremony is quite simple and is conducted by someone learned in Shan ah (Islamic Law), usually the imam. In Islam, the imam is separated from the bride-to-be by a screen or closed door; he asks the bride if she will accept the prospective husband. If she agrees, the imam then goes to the groom and asks him, in the presence of four witnesses (they cannot be family members), if he will take the woman for his wife.
His acceptance in front of witnesses makes the marriage valid, and then the imam officially records the contract. According to Islamic law, polygamy (a husband with more than one wife) is allowed. A man can have no more than four wives at a time, and even then, only if he can afford to treat them all equally; otherwise he must take fewer wives. The Hajj, the pilgrimage to the Muslim holy city of Mecca, is the most important rite of passage in a Muslim man's life. Muslim men are obliged to make the pilgrimage at least once in a lifetime. The Hajj must be performed during a specific month. The Kaaba is the sanctuary in Mecca to which all Muslims turn in prayer. The Black Stone is a sacred object set in the eastern wall of the Kaaba. During the Hajj, the faithful try to kiss or touch the stone. The Koran associates Abraham and Ishmael with the building of the Kaaba. When a Muslim dies, the funeral is very simple, and the body must be buried within 24 hours. The placement of the grave is important because the body must face Mecca. The body is washed and wrapped in a white cotton shroud. Muslims are not buried in coffins; a plank is placed at the bottom of the grave, and the body is laid on top of it. The face is covered with a cloth before the body is lowered into the ground. Men carry the body on a stretcher, or, in the case of a young child, the father carries the body in his arms. Male relatives sprinkle the grave with earth before it is completely covered.
The final prayers are said for the deceased at the cemetery. Muslim graves have no elaborate headstones. Only a small stone or marker is placed at the head and foot of the grave. Muslim women do not accompany the body to the burial ground because it is not considered appropriate for them, as bearers of life, to visit a place of death. It is the custom for friends and relatives to bring food for the immediate family for three days after the burial, and in turn, the guests are offered coffee (but no food). Honey or dishes made with honey are often eaten after funerals. Muslims believe eating honey is soothing to the soul and eases the mental anguish associated with death. A widower has no required mourning period, but a widow must go into seclusion for several months after the death of her husband.
Eastern Or Orthodox Church Life-Cycle Rituals
The Eastern or Orthodox churches are territorial or national. This arrangement is unlike the close-knit unity of the Roman Catholic Church, whose clergy are under the authority of the Pope, regardless of their location. The Orthodox churches of Greece, Russia, Armenia, Bulgaria, Serbia, and other countries are autonomous and have always been closely identified with their own country. The life-cycle rituals of Orthodox churches are more elaborate than the other Christian churches. Parents are allowed to bring their newborns to church for the first time 40 days after its birth. At that time, the priest offers special prayers and blessings for the infant. The baptism, usually held after the infant is three or four months old, is the first important event in a child's life. Baptism is the triple immersion of the baby by the priest in a baptismal tub filled with warm water. For the baptism, the baby's clothes are removed and discarded. After the triple dipping, the child is dried off by the godparents.
The priest then performs the Chrismation, anointing the child with oil (chrism). This symbolic act is performed to keep the devil from grasping the child. Another symbolic act is for the priest to snip off a lock of the child's hair, representing the child's first donation to the church. After the immersion, the godparents dress the baby in their gift of new clothes, all white, a symbol of purity. They also give the infant a gold cross. The child is given a Christian name, usually chosen from one of the many saints and martyrs of the church. In some Catholic and Orthodox Christian communities, instead of celebrating a birthday, the children celebrate the "name day" of the saint or martyr they were named after. The "name day" is not the birth date of the child or the saint, but rather the designated date on which the church elevated a holy or godly person or martyr to sainthood. Each country or region of the world, ethnic group, or church has its own collection of saints and martyrs. The traditional Orthodox wedding takes place in the church, and it is usually a very long ceremony with many symbolic rituals. Each country, ethnic group, or church adds its own unique traditions to some of the following basic rituals. During the wedding the bride and groom wear crowns or wreaths to signify their elevation to king and queen of the home they will share.
The couple jointly sip red wine from a cup to signify their togetherness, and double rings are blessed and exchanged as a visual ritual of unitv. The reception feast follows at the church hall, club or hotel ballroom, restaurant, or family home. Orthodox Christian funerals are marked by long, involved rituals and ceremonies that vary by the ethnic group, the church, the community, and to some degree, the family's wishes. The burial service is more intense and dramatic than the Roman Catholic church service, taking it to a higher level of pageantry. Among some groups, it is customary, for the family mourners to cut a lock of hair to be buried with the dead; this act symbolizes that not even death will sever the strong family ties.
The priest then performs the Chrismation, anointing the child with oil (chrism). This symbolic act is performed to keep the devil from grasping the child. Another symbolic act is for the priest to snip off a lock of the child's hair, representing the child's first donation to the church. After the immersion, the godparents dress the baby in their gift of new clothes, all white, a symbol of purity. They also give the infant a gold cross. The child is given a Christian name, usually chosen from one of the many saints and martyrs of the church. In some Catholic and Orthodox Christian communities, instead of celebrating a birthday, the children celebrate the "name day" of the saint or martyr they were named after. The "name day" is not the birth date of the child or the saint, but rather the designated date on which the church elevated a holy or godly person or martyr to sainthood. Each country or region of the world, ethnic group, or church has its own collection of saints and martyrs. The traditional Orthodox wedding takes place in the church, and it is usually a very long ceremony with many symbolic rituals. Each country, ethnic group, or church adds its own unique traditions to some of the following basic rituals. During the wedding the bride and groom wear crowns or wreaths to signify their elevation to king and queen of the home they will share.
The couple jointly sip red wine from a cup to signify their togetherness, and double rings are blessed and exchanged as a visual ritual of unitv. The reception feast follows at the church hall, club or hotel ballroom, restaurant, or family home. Orthodox Christian funerals are marked by long, involved rituals and ceremonies that vary by the ethnic group, the church, the community, and to some degree, the family's wishes. The burial service is more intense and dramatic than the Roman Catholic church service, taking it to a higher level of pageantry. Among some groups, it is customary, for the family mourners to cut a lock of hair to be buried with the dead; this act symbolizes that not even death will sever the strong family ties.
Protestant And Catholic Life-Cycle Rituals
Baptism is the most widely accepted way of becoming a member of the Christian faith. The word "baptism" is derived from the Greek word ubaptizein,77 meaning "to dip or immerse." Christian churches have infant baptisms and adult baptisms. When infants are baptized, thev are either dipped into a baptism tub, called a font, or water is sprinkled on the infant's head by the minister (Protestant clergy) or priest (Catholic clergy). When an adult converts to Christianity, the baptism ceremony can be held in a church or in a river or lake. Various Christian groups observe the rituals in different ways. Among some groups, when a baby is born, parents select godparents to oversee the child's spiritual progress in case they are unable to do so. Godparents are expected to take part in the baptismal ceremony. For some groups, naming the child, christening, is part of the ceremony. Christian churches that practice infant baptism almost always have coming-of-age rituals, known as confirmation. Although confirmations can take place at any time, they are usually held at the onset of puberty, at about age 12. At these ceremonies, a young person is "confirmed" to take a more active role in the church. To be confirmed, one has to attend classes to learn more about the Christian faith. Catholic confirmation services are a little more extensive and include many symbolic rituals. In most denominations, the ceremony is performed by a high-ranking member of the church. An emotional ritual performed by the clergy is "laying hands" on the head of the person being confirmed.
This ancient ritual symbolizes the passing on of the Christian faith from one generation to the next. Christian marriage traditions vary from church to church and even from family to family. Prior to marriage the couple usually announces their intentions to marry, known as the betrothal. The length of betrothal periods are different for each marriage, with no set time period. Some Christian groups have orientation classes at the church to prepare the couple for marriage. A Christian wedding may be an elaborate, formal church ceremony with many attendants or a very simple affair with just the bride and groom before the minister. Most Protestants hold their wedding ceremonies anywhere they like; it need not take place in the church. The wedding celebrations differ according to the customs of the country, ethnic group, city, village, and even the family. Roman Catholic marriages must take place in the church to be officially recognized. The ceremony can be either without Mass, and only 20-minutes long, or be a more elaborate ceremony with a Mass, lasting for an hour. It is customary for the Roman Catholic priest throughout the Mass to give instructions, which often vary from parish to parish. During the wedding ceremony, vows and rings are exchanged. Just before Communion (see next paragraph) is served, the priest gives a sign of peace, and at that time the guests turn to their neighbors, shake their hands, and say, "Peace be with you" or some other friendly greeting. Close friends and relatives often hug. In the Roman Catholic Church, Communion is reserved for baptized Catholics. The Communion is the commemoration of Christ's Last Supper. It is the ceremony in which bread and wine are consecrated and taken as the body and blood of Christ. (Anglican and Orthodox churches also have Communion ceremonies.) To take Communion, members of the congregation walk down the center aisle to take the bread (usually a wafer) and wine and then return to their seats. After Communion, the signing of the register takes place, and the priest introduces the newly married couple to the guests. At this time the guests will often applaud, depending on local custom.
Both Catholic and Protestant wedding ceremonies are usually followed by a wedding feast. It can be a simple meal for just the wedding party or an elaborate one for thousands of guests. The feast can be a wedding breakfast, luncheon, afternoon repast, supper, or extravagant wedding reception at any time of day or evening with feasting, drinking, dancing, singing, and merrymaking. Christian customs for mourning the dead vary from country to country and from parish to parish. When a Christian dies, the body is embalmed and then washed and dressed in clean clothing in preparation for burial. Depending upon local customs and the financial situation and wishes of the family, Christian funerals can take place either at home, funeral home, church, or public hall. The evening before a Protestant funeral, it is customary for family and friends to view the body either in the home or funeral home. Catholics generally have a Wake (prayer service), followed by the serving of food and drink. In fact, food and drink play an important role in the mourning process. As soon as friends and neighbors hear about a death it is customary for them to bring platters, bowls, and baskets of prepared food and beverages to the home of the deceased to be shared by mourners.
On the day of the burial, Protestants generally have a service at the funeral home or church. Catholics may or may not bring the casket to the church for the Mass. After the burial at the cemetery, the mourners go to the church hall or the home of the deceased to share in the food provided for the occasion. It is customary for Catholics to have a memorial Mass said in memory of a loved one 30 days after the death and again after one year.
This ancient ritual symbolizes the passing on of the Christian faith from one generation to the next. Christian marriage traditions vary from church to church and even from family to family. Prior to marriage the couple usually announces their intentions to marry, known as the betrothal. The length of betrothal periods are different for each marriage, with no set time period. Some Christian groups have orientation classes at the church to prepare the couple for marriage. A Christian wedding may be an elaborate, formal church ceremony with many attendants or a very simple affair with just the bride and groom before the minister. Most Protestants hold their wedding ceremonies anywhere they like; it need not take place in the church. The wedding celebrations differ according to the customs of the country, ethnic group, city, village, and even the family. Roman Catholic marriages must take place in the church to be officially recognized. The ceremony can be either without Mass, and only 20-minutes long, or be a more elaborate ceremony with a Mass, lasting for an hour. It is customary for the Roman Catholic priest throughout the Mass to give instructions, which often vary from parish to parish. During the wedding ceremony, vows and rings are exchanged. Just before Communion (see next paragraph) is served, the priest gives a sign of peace, and at that time the guests turn to their neighbors, shake their hands, and say, "Peace be with you" or some other friendly greeting. Close friends and relatives often hug. In the Roman Catholic Church, Communion is reserved for baptized Catholics. The Communion is the commemoration of Christ's Last Supper. It is the ceremony in which bread and wine are consecrated and taken as the body and blood of Christ. (Anglican and Orthodox churches also have Communion ceremonies.) To take Communion, members of the congregation walk down the center aisle to take the bread (usually a wafer) and wine and then return to their seats. After Communion, the signing of the register takes place, and the priest introduces the newly married couple to the guests. At this time the guests will often applaud, depending on local custom.
Both Catholic and Protestant wedding ceremonies are usually followed by a wedding feast. It can be a simple meal for just the wedding party or an elaborate one for thousands of guests. The feast can be a wedding breakfast, luncheon, afternoon repast, supper, or extravagant wedding reception at any time of day or evening with feasting, drinking, dancing, singing, and merrymaking. Christian customs for mourning the dead vary from country to country and from parish to parish. When a Christian dies, the body is embalmed and then washed and dressed in clean clothing in preparation for burial. Depending upon local customs and the financial situation and wishes of the family, Christian funerals can take place either at home, funeral home, church, or public hall. The evening before a Protestant funeral, it is customary for family and friends to view the body either in the home or funeral home. Catholics generally have a Wake (prayer service), followed by the serving of food and drink. In fact, food and drink play an important role in the mourning process. As soon as friends and neighbors hear about a death it is customary for them to bring platters, bowls, and baskets of prepared food and beverages to the home of the deceased to be shared by mourners.
On the day of the burial, Protestants generally have a service at the funeral home or church. Catholics may or may not bring the casket to the church for the Mass. After the burial at the cemetery, the mourners go to the church hall or the home of the deceased to share in the food provided for the occasion. It is customary for Catholics to have a memorial Mass said in memory of a loved one 30 days after the death and again after one year.
Christianity And Christian Life-Cycle Rituals
Christianity is a universal religion with more followers than any of the other world religions. Christianity is a monotheistic religion (the belief in just one God) that grew out of Judaism. The Old Testament of the Christian Bible is the same as the Jewish Torah, but Christians believe that Jesus Christ is the messiah prophesized in the Old Testament. The story of Jesus' life makes up the New Testament. Over the centuries, cultural differences and variations in the way people worship have led to the formation of thousands of different branches, denominations, and sects within Christianity. The principal divisions in Christianity are the Protestant, the Catholic, and the Orthodox Churches.
Despite these divisions, Christians share some common beliefs: Jesus Christ is the savior, Sunday is the official day of worship, and the Bible is the holy book of Christianity. Almost all Christian churches celebrate life-cycle events with the designated rituals— baptisms, confirmation, marriage, and funeral services. The rituals and pageantryvary from the simple or few in some Protestant churches, to the symbolic pageantry in most Catholic churches and some Anglican churches, to the grand opulence in the Orthodox churches. Besides these differences in religious sects, the geographic location and the traditions and customs of local people cause rituals to vary from one country to another.
Although these differences exist, the foods associated with Christian rituals are fairly universal. Red wine or grape juice and breads and wheat grain products have a religious significance in most Christian church ceremonies.
Despite these divisions, Christians share some common beliefs: Jesus Christ is the savior, Sunday is the official day of worship, and the Bible is the holy book of Christianity. Almost all Christian churches celebrate life-cycle events with the designated rituals— baptisms, confirmation, marriage, and funeral services. The rituals and pageantryvary from the simple or few in some Protestant churches, to the symbolic pageantry in most Catholic churches and some Anglican churches, to the grand opulence in the Orthodox churches. Besides these differences in religious sects, the geographic location and the traditions and customs of local people cause rituals to vary from one country to another.
Although these differences exist, the foods associated with Christian rituals are fairly universal. Red wine or grape juice and breads and wheat grain products have a religious significance in most Christian church ceremonies.
Judaism and Jewish Life-Cycle Rituals
Judaism is the world's oldest monotheistic religion (belief in just one God), surviving for over four thousand years. It has also given rise to the Christian and Islamic traditions. Although followers of Judaism can be found all over the world, its roots are in the Middle East, particularly the region around the country of Israel, which was founded in 1948 as a Jewish state. Judaism has split into three branches— Orthodox, Conservative, and Reform—with numerous other small variations. Although all branches observe the same life-cycle events, each interprets the rituals differently. Orthodox Jews are the most pious and generally follow rituals and customs to their full extent. Most Conservatives accept some of the rituals and customs, while most Reform Jews follow them in moderation, if at all. One important difference between the different Jewish groups is that Orthodox Jews follow strict kosher dietary laws. The word "kosher" means "fit" or "clean." The kosher rules apply to what can be eaten, how it is processed, and how it is prepared and served. Many Conservative Jews "keep kosher," while most Reform Jews don't observe the kosher laws. In the State of Israel, the kosher dietary laws are the law of the land and are followed by most people. For Kosher Jews, eating shellfish, pork, and certain other animals is forbidden, and the animals they do eat must be slaughtered a certain way. Dairy products must not be eaten at the same meal with meat and poultry. Wine and the traditional bread, challah , are ritual foods included in all life-cycle celebrations. On the eighth day after a boy is born, friends and family gather for a ceremony, observed for millennia, called a Brit Milah, the ceremony of circumcision (commonly referred to as a Bris). The mohel, a person trained to perform the circumcision, does so for male infants of all Orthodox and some Conservative and Reform parents. Followed by appropriate blessings and prayers, the mohel completes the procedure with the skill of a fine surgeon. The baby is then comforted in the arms of its mother while the family and a few close friends invited for the ceremony adjourn to another room for a light repast. Many Conservative and Reform Jews prefer to have a doctor perform the circumcision at the hospital before the newborn is taken home. The first Friday evening after the birth of a boy the family holds a Shalem Zachor, a festive occasion to welcome him into the family.
Sweet pastries and nahit (chick peas or garbanzo beans) are traditionally served. A ceremony fairly new to Judaism celebrates the birth of a girl. Simhat habat is Hebrew for "rejoicing over the daughter." When a girl is born, the family's rabbi (Jewish religious leader) announces her name to the congregation during Friday night synagogue services. To celebrate the occasion, some parents and grandparents provide sweets and beverages in the reception area for the congregation following the service or a party may be held at the parents' home. Many Jewish children are given two names—a secular name and a Hebrew name. Some are named after people in the Bible. The Hebrew name is used throughout life: at the Bar and Bat Mitzvah, at the wedding, and on the gravestone.
The Orthodox Jews have many rituals and customs not practiced by the Conservative or Reform branches of Judaism. For instance, only Orthodox Jews delay a little boy's haircut until he is 3 years old, the age at which Orthodox boys traditionally begin to study the Torah (the first five books of the Bible). Jewish parents believe nothing is more important for their children than education in both secular and Hebrew schools. After a boy completes his Jewish learning, at age 13, a coming-of-age ceremony, called a Bar Mitzvah, is held. For a girl, at age 12, a Bat Mitzvah is held. This ceremony is an important event in the lives of Jewish boys and girls because it means they are no longer looked upon as children and they are now received into the religious community. Bar and Bat Mitzvah ceremonies are a relatively recent development. Neither a ceremony nor a feast is called for in the Jewish religious law, but decades ago, Eastern European Jews began the practice of marking the day with a ceremony at the synagogue, followed by a simple party. Although customs vary, the Bar and Bat Mitzvah services take place during the weekly Sabbath service in the synagogue or temple. The young adults read in Hebrew from the Torah, and they are called upon to give a speech, usually thanking their parents and Hebrew teachers.
At the close of the service, attended by family, relatives, friends, classmates, and regular members of the congregation, it is customary for the boy or girl's parents to invite the attendees into the social hall of the temple or synagogue for a kiddush, the traditional Sabbath prayer over bread and wine. After the service, everyone is invited to the parent's home, a social hall, or restaurant for a celebration marked with plenty of food and the giving of gifts. Another coming-of-age ceremony for Reform Jews is the confirmation ceremony that is celebrated after the completion of Hebrew high school. This practice arose out a belief by Reform Jews that 13 was too young an age for the coming-of-age ceremony. Today most Reform Jews celebrate both the Bar Mitzvah and the confirmation. In Judaism, marriage is considered to be a holy covenant (agreement) between the bride and groom. Among the Orthodox and some Conservative and Reform Jews, a marriage document (ketubah) is signed by the bride and groom in which they promise to take care of each other and to make a Jewish home. This document describes the rights and obligations of the bride and groom. A bride will often wear a face veil for the wedding, especially if she is Orthodox. If the veil is worn, a veiling ritual takes place just before the ceremony when the groom veils the bride after he verifies that she is actually the woman he plans on marrying. This symbolic ritual is a reminder of the lesson learned in the Old Testament by Jacob, who was tricked into marrying Leah instead of Rachel, his true love. Leah pretended to be Rachel and covered her face with her veil so Jacob would not know the truth until the marriage was sanctioned. A Jewish wedding can be held at any location, as long as an ordained rabbi officiates. By custom, all immediate relatives are part of the wedding party. The groom, and then the bride, are escorted down the aisle by their parents. Siblings can be attendants and grandparents may have a place in the procession. The wedding ceremony is performed under a huppah (wedding canopy), which represents the couple's future home. The huppah is often a large embroidered cloth, or it can be a blanket of fresh flowers and greenery; sometimes it is a prayer shawl (tallit) belonging to a relative. The huppah is held up by four poles, and it is considered an honor to be one of the four people selected to hold a pole upright during the ceremony. Symbolically, the pole bearers are showing loyalty to the marrying couple. Under the huppah, a table is set with two glasses and a bottle of ritual wine used for the kiddush prayer. Depending on the couple's cultural background, personal preference, and local custom, the language of the service will vary, possibly combining Hebrew and English. After the introduction by the rabbi, wedding vows are exchanged; the groom then places a plain gold band (without engraving or breaks) on the bride's right index finger for Orthodox and some Conservative ceremonies. If it is a Reform ceremony, it is usually placed on her left ring finger. The rabbi then reads aloud the ketubah (the traditional marriage contract). At some point during the service, the bride and groom will each sip a glass of ritual wine while a traditional prayer, a kiddush, is recited. Near the end of the ceremony, the traditional seven blessings will be recited or sung. The Orthodox ritual is a little different. The bride mav circle the groom seven times, representing the seven wedding blessings, before taking her place at his right side. The sheva brachot (seven blessings) symbolize the seven days of creation and the completion of the marriage ceremony.
The first blessing is upon the wine, the fruit of the vine. The second thanks God for his creation, and the third specifically praises God for his creation of human life. The fourth blessing acknowledges the separation of human life into man and woman. The fifth wishes for Jerusalem to be rebuilt and restored to its beautiful existence. The sixth declares hope that the new couple will be as happy as Adam and Eve were in the Garden of Eden. The seventh blessing thanks God for creating delight, mirth, gratification, pleasure, love, serenity, and brotherhood. The ceremony ends with the tradition of crushing the wine glass used in the ceremony beneath the groom's heel. The glass is often wrapped in a napkin or handkerchief before the groom stamps on it. The breaking of the glass represents many things: it symbolizes the destruction of the Temple of Jerusalem and acts as a reminder that in life and in marriage there are times of sorrow and joy. The shattered glass also reminds guests and participants of how fragile life is. After the groom breaks the glass, guests clap and cheer him and call out "Mazeltovl" (congratulations or good luck). Immediately following the ceremony, some Jewish couples perform a traditional ritual known asyichud (union). The couple goes into a private room where they briefly eat some food together, usually chicken broth. Chanukat habayit is the celebration for the family in their new home. It is a housewarming or a "dedication of the home." A mezuzah, a case containing small scrolls in Hebrew with two extracts from Deuteronomy (in the Old Testament), is fixed to the top right-hand side of the front door and each door inside the house. Prayers are said and bread and salt are brought into the house, as a symbol of good luck, before the festivities begin. After a death in a Jewish family, the funeral service is arranged as soon as possible, preferably within 24 hours of death. Funerals are kept very simple, even among wealthy families. No prayers for the dead are offered, but kaddish, a prayer of praise to God, is recited in their memory. When a parent dies, it is the responsibility of the children to say kaddish on their behalf. At Orthodox and some Conservative funerals mourning family members make a small tear in their clothes (such as on a tie or scarf) as a mark of grief. After the funeral, mourners are invited to the departed person's family home to partake in food and drink prepared by friends or family members other than mourners. This meal is known as seudat havra-ah (meal of consolation). Customs vary among the different communities and Jewish groups, but the food for seudat havra-ah always includes hard-boiled eggs as a symbol of life and a food whose roundness suggests the continuance and eternity of life, such as lentils or bagels. In Judaism, bread is the staff of life and is served at all meals. At a time of mourning, it is especially appropriate to eat bread as the symbol of life. The seudat havraah is a mitzvah (blessing), not a social event, and as such mourners can drink a moderate amount of wine. Meat is symbolically the food of celebration and joy, therefore it is never served for seudat havra-ah. Before entering the house, all the mourners must wash their hands. A pail of water and towels are placed just outside the front entrance of the house for this ritual.
Following the funeral, a week of private mourning, called shivah (the seven days), is observed. During shivah, the grieving Orthodox Jews sit on low stools or on the floor. It is also the custom to cover mirrors and pictures hanging on the walls with cloth sheets. On the anniversary of a parent's death, the children light a memorial candle (and recite the kaddish). Toward the end of every Friday night synagogue or temple service, the rabbi asks those mourning a loved one to join him in reciting the kaddish.
Sweet pastries and nahit (chick peas or garbanzo beans) are traditionally served. A ceremony fairly new to Judaism celebrates the birth of a girl. Simhat habat is Hebrew for "rejoicing over the daughter." When a girl is born, the family's rabbi (Jewish religious leader) announces her name to the congregation during Friday night synagogue services. To celebrate the occasion, some parents and grandparents provide sweets and beverages in the reception area for the congregation following the service or a party may be held at the parents' home. Many Jewish children are given two names—a secular name and a Hebrew name. Some are named after people in the Bible. The Hebrew name is used throughout life: at the Bar and Bat Mitzvah, at the wedding, and on the gravestone.
The Orthodox Jews have many rituals and customs not practiced by the Conservative or Reform branches of Judaism. For instance, only Orthodox Jews delay a little boy's haircut until he is 3 years old, the age at which Orthodox boys traditionally begin to study the Torah (the first five books of the Bible). Jewish parents believe nothing is more important for their children than education in both secular and Hebrew schools. After a boy completes his Jewish learning, at age 13, a coming-of-age ceremony, called a Bar Mitzvah, is held. For a girl, at age 12, a Bat Mitzvah is held. This ceremony is an important event in the lives of Jewish boys and girls because it means they are no longer looked upon as children and they are now received into the religious community. Bar and Bat Mitzvah ceremonies are a relatively recent development. Neither a ceremony nor a feast is called for in the Jewish religious law, but decades ago, Eastern European Jews began the practice of marking the day with a ceremony at the synagogue, followed by a simple party. Although customs vary, the Bar and Bat Mitzvah services take place during the weekly Sabbath service in the synagogue or temple. The young adults read in Hebrew from the Torah, and they are called upon to give a speech, usually thanking their parents and Hebrew teachers.
At the close of the service, attended by family, relatives, friends, classmates, and regular members of the congregation, it is customary for the boy or girl's parents to invite the attendees into the social hall of the temple or synagogue for a kiddush, the traditional Sabbath prayer over bread and wine. After the service, everyone is invited to the parent's home, a social hall, or restaurant for a celebration marked with plenty of food and the giving of gifts. Another coming-of-age ceremony for Reform Jews is the confirmation ceremony that is celebrated after the completion of Hebrew high school. This practice arose out a belief by Reform Jews that 13 was too young an age for the coming-of-age ceremony. Today most Reform Jews celebrate both the Bar Mitzvah and the confirmation. In Judaism, marriage is considered to be a holy covenant (agreement) between the bride and groom. Among the Orthodox and some Conservative and Reform Jews, a marriage document (ketubah) is signed by the bride and groom in which they promise to take care of each other and to make a Jewish home. This document describes the rights and obligations of the bride and groom. A bride will often wear a face veil for the wedding, especially if she is Orthodox. If the veil is worn, a veiling ritual takes place just before the ceremony when the groom veils the bride after he verifies that she is actually the woman he plans on marrying. This symbolic ritual is a reminder of the lesson learned in the Old Testament by Jacob, who was tricked into marrying Leah instead of Rachel, his true love. Leah pretended to be Rachel and covered her face with her veil so Jacob would not know the truth until the marriage was sanctioned. A Jewish wedding can be held at any location, as long as an ordained rabbi officiates. By custom, all immediate relatives are part of the wedding party. The groom, and then the bride, are escorted down the aisle by their parents. Siblings can be attendants and grandparents may have a place in the procession. The wedding ceremony is performed under a huppah (wedding canopy), which represents the couple's future home. The huppah is often a large embroidered cloth, or it can be a blanket of fresh flowers and greenery; sometimes it is a prayer shawl (tallit) belonging to a relative. The huppah is held up by four poles, and it is considered an honor to be one of the four people selected to hold a pole upright during the ceremony. Symbolically, the pole bearers are showing loyalty to the marrying couple. Under the huppah, a table is set with two glasses and a bottle of ritual wine used for the kiddush prayer. Depending on the couple's cultural background, personal preference, and local custom, the language of the service will vary, possibly combining Hebrew and English. After the introduction by the rabbi, wedding vows are exchanged; the groom then places a plain gold band (without engraving or breaks) on the bride's right index finger for Orthodox and some Conservative ceremonies. If it is a Reform ceremony, it is usually placed on her left ring finger. The rabbi then reads aloud the ketubah (the traditional marriage contract). At some point during the service, the bride and groom will each sip a glass of ritual wine while a traditional prayer, a kiddush, is recited. Near the end of the ceremony, the traditional seven blessings will be recited or sung. The Orthodox ritual is a little different. The bride mav circle the groom seven times, representing the seven wedding blessings, before taking her place at his right side. The sheva brachot (seven blessings) symbolize the seven days of creation and the completion of the marriage ceremony.
The first blessing is upon the wine, the fruit of the vine. The second thanks God for his creation, and the third specifically praises God for his creation of human life. The fourth blessing acknowledges the separation of human life into man and woman. The fifth wishes for Jerusalem to be rebuilt and restored to its beautiful existence. The sixth declares hope that the new couple will be as happy as Adam and Eve were in the Garden of Eden. The seventh blessing thanks God for creating delight, mirth, gratification, pleasure, love, serenity, and brotherhood. The ceremony ends with the tradition of crushing the wine glass used in the ceremony beneath the groom's heel. The glass is often wrapped in a napkin or handkerchief before the groom stamps on it. The breaking of the glass represents many things: it symbolizes the destruction of the Temple of Jerusalem and acts as a reminder that in life and in marriage there are times of sorrow and joy. The shattered glass also reminds guests and participants of how fragile life is. After the groom breaks the glass, guests clap and cheer him and call out "Mazeltovl" (congratulations or good luck). Immediately following the ceremony, some Jewish couples perform a traditional ritual known asyichud (union). The couple goes into a private room where they briefly eat some food together, usually chicken broth. Chanukat habayit is the celebration for the family in their new home. It is a housewarming or a "dedication of the home." A mezuzah, a case containing small scrolls in Hebrew with two extracts from Deuteronomy (in the Old Testament), is fixed to the top right-hand side of the front door and each door inside the house. Prayers are said and bread and salt are brought into the house, as a symbol of good luck, before the festivities begin. After a death in a Jewish family, the funeral service is arranged as soon as possible, preferably within 24 hours of death. Funerals are kept very simple, even among wealthy families. No prayers for the dead are offered, but kaddish, a prayer of praise to God, is recited in their memory. When a parent dies, it is the responsibility of the children to say kaddish on their behalf. At Orthodox and some Conservative funerals mourning family members make a small tear in their clothes (such as on a tie or scarf) as a mark of grief. After the funeral, mourners are invited to the departed person's family home to partake in food and drink prepared by friends or family members other than mourners. This meal is known as seudat havra-ah (meal of consolation). Customs vary among the different communities and Jewish groups, but the food for seudat havra-ah always includes hard-boiled eggs as a symbol of life and a food whose roundness suggests the continuance and eternity of life, such as lentils or bagels. In Judaism, bread is the staff of life and is served at all meals. At a time of mourning, it is especially appropriate to eat bread as the symbol of life. The seudat havraah is a mitzvah (blessing), not a social event, and as such mourners can drink a moderate amount of wine. Meat is symbolically the food of celebration and joy, therefore it is never served for seudat havra-ah. Before entering the house, all the mourners must wash their hands. A pail of water and towels are placed just outside the front entrance of the house for this ritual.
Following the funeral, a week of private mourning, called shivah (the seven days), is observed. During shivah, the grieving Orthodox Jews sit on low stools or on the floor. It is also the custom to cover mirrors and pictures hanging on the walls with cloth sheets. On the anniversary of a parent's death, the children light a memorial candle (and recite the kaddish). Toward the end of every Friday night synagogue or temple service, the rabbi asks those mourning a loved one to join him in reciting the kaddish.
Traditional African Life-Cycle Rituals
Life-cycle events in an African society that follows indigenous practices usually begin with an offering to the ancestral spirits. The offerings can be baskets of food left on the family shrine or a beverage, water or something stronger, taken out and poured over the ancestral burial ground.
Popular ritual foods are honey, pumpkins, and yams. Shortly after birth, it is important to name the newborn; usually an ancestral or "spirit" name is chosen. The name is chosen according to which dead ancestor has "returned" in the child. (See Death below.) The name is more than a label; being given the name of an ancestor is to inherit something of his or her basic nature, qualities, and status. Among most ethnic groups, when the male reaches puberty, an initiation ceremony takes place, usually at the beginning of the dry season in May. The first stage of this ceremony is separation from all females, especially from mothers. Among most groups, circumcision is performed during this separation. The boys spend several months at camps, away from the village, where they undergo trials and are instructed in traditional beliefs and practices. Their return to the village as men is a joyful occasion, and great communal feasts are part of the celebration. The initiation of girls is often performed on an individual basis, usually just before the first menstrual period. The initiation prepares young women for marriage and usually no celebration is held, or at most a party is given for the immediate family. Throughout rural Africa, the betrothal and marriage rituals are tied to the age-old concern of collective survival. The rituals, steeped in tradition, might differ slightly from tribe to tribe, but regardless of specific traditions, marriage is a union between families and communities rather than two people. Marrying within the kin group is discouraged; however, the preferred marriage is with someone belonging to the same ethnic group. In the traditional indigenous cultures, polygamy (one husband and many wives) has been the accepted family structure, in part because of the high death rate of women during childbirth. Once a mate has been selected, the long, drawn-out courting process can take up to a year to complete in traditional cultures. The giving of premarital gifts and providing of services to each other's families help to cement the marriage agreement. Gifts from the groom's family to the family of the bride, given to validate the marriage contract, include such things as cattle, kente cloth, bags of money, beer, and food. In some communities, the men farm for their prospective inlaws as part of the nuptial contract.
In these traditional cultures, to have children is the most important responsibility of life. To be childless is to have failed the community, including the ancestors. A person without children cannot be an "ancestor" and does not participate in the continuity of communal life. Until recent years, a girl had no say in her future. As Africa modernizes, women are speaking out, and in some communities they have the right to accept or reject the husband selected by their family. Some can actually choose their own husbands but not without first consulting the ancestral spirits for approval. In most traditional religions, ancestors are revered by the living. Not everyone who dies becomes an ancestor, however, only those who have children, who die without shame, and who are correctly buried. Upon the death of a family member, a period of mourning forges links between the living and the dead. Those in mourning perform a number of rituals to ensure that the spirit of the dead person moves easily into the world of his or her ancestors.
Families practice different rituals to retain the connection between this world and the next so that they do not lose contact with ancestors. For example, ancestral worshipers make offerings of food and drink at the grave, and some ethnic groups keep a private shrine or a "spirit house" within the family compound. When a favor is requested of the ancestor spirit a sacrifice may be made, usually a small animal such as a chicken or goat. The most important link between ancestors and the living is the rebirth of the dead through the birth of a child. In this way, the relationship between ancestors and descendants is continuous and never ending. In many traditional African societies, kings and chiefs are considered sacred, and they have elaborate funerals. To please their followers, it is important for ruling figures to be impressive in death, and so they are buried in full regalia. Not too many years ago, the wives and servants of the rulers were killed and buried along with the important men to help them in their afterlife.
Popular ritual foods are honey, pumpkins, and yams. Shortly after birth, it is important to name the newborn; usually an ancestral or "spirit" name is chosen. The name is chosen according to which dead ancestor has "returned" in the child. (See Death below.) The name is more than a label; being given the name of an ancestor is to inherit something of his or her basic nature, qualities, and status. Among most ethnic groups, when the male reaches puberty, an initiation ceremony takes place, usually at the beginning of the dry season in May. The first stage of this ceremony is separation from all females, especially from mothers. Among most groups, circumcision is performed during this separation. The boys spend several months at camps, away from the village, where they undergo trials and are instructed in traditional beliefs and practices. Their return to the village as men is a joyful occasion, and great communal feasts are part of the celebration. The initiation of girls is often performed on an individual basis, usually just before the first menstrual period. The initiation prepares young women for marriage and usually no celebration is held, or at most a party is given for the immediate family. Throughout rural Africa, the betrothal and marriage rituals are tied to the age-old concern of collective survival. The rituals, steeped in tradition, might differ slightly from tribe to tribe, but regardless of specific traditions, marriage is a union between families and communities rather than two people. Marrying within the kin group is discouraged; however, the preferred marriage is with someone belonging to the same ethnic group. In the traditional indigenous cultures, polygamy (one husband and many wives) has been the accepted family structure, in part because of the high death rate of women during childbirth. Once a mate has been selected, the long, drawn-out courting process can take up to a year to complete in traditional cultures. The giving of premarital gifts and providing of services to each other's families help to cement the marriage agreement. Gifts from the groom's family to the family of the bride, given to validate the marriage contract, include such things as cattle, kente cloth, bags of money, beer, and food. In some communities, the men farm for their prospective inlaws as part of the nuptial contract.
In these traditional cultures, to have children is the most important responsibility of life. To be childless is to have failed the community, including the ancestors. A person without children cannot be an "ancestor" and does not participate in the continuity of communal life. Until recent years, a girl had no say in her future. As Africa modernizes, women are speaking out, and in some communities they have the right to accept or reject the husband selected by their family. Some can actually choose their own husbands but not without first consulting the ancestral spirits for approval. In most traditional religions, ancestors are revered by the living. Not everyone who dies becomes an ancestor, however, only those who have children, who die without shame, and who are correctly buried. Upon the death of a family member, a period of mourning forges links between the living and the dead. Those in mourning perform a number of rituals to ensure that the spirit of the dead person moves easily into the world of his or her ancestors.
Families practice different rituals to retain the connection between this world and the next so that they do not lose contact with ancestors. For example, ancestral worshipers make offerings of food and drink at the grave, and some ethnic groups keep a private shrine or a "spirit house" within the family compound. When a favor is requested of the ancestor spirit a sacrifice may be made, usually a small animal such as a chicken or goat. The most important link between ancestors and the living is the rebirth of the dead through the birth of a child. In this way, the relationship between ancestors and descendants is continuous and never ending. In many traditional African societies, kings and chiefs are considered sacred, and they have elaborate funerals. To please their followers, it is important for ruling figures to be impressive in death, and so they are buried in full regalia. Not too many years ago, the wives and servants of the rulers were killed and buried along with the important men to help them in their afterlife.
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A life-cycle event, also known as a "rite of passage/7 is a person's progression from one stage of life to another. An individual's key life-cycle events—birth, puberty (coming of age), marriage, and death—are important occasions in most societies and cultures worldwide. Other personal milestones—celebrating birthdays and name days, graduating from school, getting a first job, paying off a mortgage, becoming a grandparent— are also occasions for marking a person's advancement in life.
The events indentified as important vary from place to place, from time to time, and from one culture to another. Among most cultures, however, a new stage in life usually calls for a celebration, perhaps a ritual, and almost always food. Sometimes life-cycle events are marked by an official rite of passage that formally removes individuals from an earlier status or role and officially places them in a new role that includes different rights and responsibilities. In other situations, life milestones are marked or celebrated without such an official rite, but with recognition and celebration of other kinds. Some of these practices are defined by religious leaders or teachings. Some are the customs of the ethnic group or national community. Often, the life-cycle celebrations are surrounded with familiar customs and traditions, anticipated by all involved. Many of these customs are rooted in religious traditions, but some of the beliefs can be traced back to more ancient customs.
Today in most countries these beliefs, often called good luck and bad luck, are still very strong. For example, throwing rice at newlyweds to send them on their way at the end of a wedding is supposed to "shower luck" on their life together. Tying shoes on their getaway car is another act for "good luck." The groom seeing the bride before the wedding is sometimes considered "bad luck." Consulting the stars for an auspicious date, rubbing oil on an infant during baptism to ward off the devil, and eating longevity noodles are all rituals that have been passed from generation to generation. Life-cycle rituals vary from culture to culture and nation to nation. Some customs are more understandable to outsiders than others. Throughout the world, life-cycle celebrations reveal the very heart of the family and the culture. Continuing the ancestral lifecycle customs and rituals give continuity and a sense of belonging and substance to each new generation.
The events indentified as important vary from place to place, from time to time, and from one culture to another. Among most cultures, however, a new stage in life usually calls for a celebration, perhaps a ritual, and almost always food. Sometimes life-cycle events are marked by an official rite of passage that formally removes individuals from an earlier status or role and officially places them in a new role that includes different rights and responsibilities. In other situations, life milestones are marked or celebrated without such an official rite, but with recognition and celebration of other kinds. Some of these practices are defined by religious leaders or teachings. Some are the customs of the ethnic group or national community. Often, the life-cycle celebrations are surrounded with familiar customs and traditions, anticipated by all involved. Many of these customs are rooted in religious traditions, but some of the beliefs can be traced back to more ancient customs.
Today in most countries these beliefs, often called good luck and bad luck, are still very strong. For example, throwing rice at newlyweds to send them on their way at the end of a wedding is supposed to "shower luck" on their life together. Tying shoes on their getaway car is another act for "good luck." The groom seeing the bride before the wedding is sometimes considered "bad luck." Consulting the stars for an auspicious date, rubbing oil on an infant during baptism to ward off the devil, and eating longevity noodles are all rituals that have been passed from generation to generation. Life-cycle rituals vary from culture to culture and nation to nation. Some customs are more understandable to outsiders than others. Throughout the world, life-cycle celebrations reveal the very heart of the family and the culture. Continuing the ancestral lifecycle customs and rituals give continuity and a sense of belonging and substance to each new generation.
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